A Review of Load Frequency and Automatic Voltage Control Techniques in Modern Smart Grids

A. Sabo, Aliyu Abdul-Quadri Hujatullahi, Uzoma Joseph Ebuka, Ozioko Ugochukwu Jerald, Goji Jonathan Zira, Ibrahim Sayeddi Aliyu

Abstract


The stability of voltage and frequency is essential for reliable smart grid operation, especially under high renewable energy penetration. This paper reviews classical Proportional–Integral (PI), Proportional–Integral–Derivative (PID), modern (Model Predictive Control, Fuzzy Logic), and AI-based techniques for Load Frequency Control (LFC) and Automatic Voltage Control (AVC). It highlights the limitations of traditional controllers in nonlinear systems and the superior adaptability of modern and AI-driven schemes. The review also discusses centralized versus decentralized architectures, the role of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Energy Storage Systems (ESS), and emerging cyber security challenges. A comprehensive synthesis of existing methods and open research gaps is presented to guide the development of resilient and intelligent control frameworks for future smart grids. 


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References


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